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  • Founded Date February 16, 1983
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Expert System Industry In China

The artificial intelligence market in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms stressing science and innovation as the country’s main productive force.

The preliminary phases of China’s AI advancement were sluggish and encountered significant difficulties due to lack of resources and skill. At the starting China lagged the majority of Western countries in terms of AI advancement. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had actually received higher education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of the People’s Republic of China has actually gradually established a national agenda for synthetic intelligence advancement and became among the leading countries in synthetic intelligence research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to become a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI teams” including fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each business needs to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s rapid AI development has actually significantly affected Chinese society in numerous locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most affected by more AI release.

The economic sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are few present existing borders. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade limitations intended to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the development of generative expert system and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and advancement of synthetic intelligence in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and innovation for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and development did not start up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was challenging so China’s federal government approached these difficulties by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional supplying funds for research projects. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually belonged to China’s nationwide technology plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has even more expanded its research and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study projects has considerably increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy concern for the development of expert system, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, expert system was also discussed in the l lth five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The very first award ceremony was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This event corresponded with the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable turning point in China’s advancement of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a tactical technology that has ended up being a “focus of international competitors”. [14]:2 The document urged substantial financial investment in a variety of strategic areas connected to AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the event of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between economic and military ends is an essential component to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The very same year witnessed the introduction of numerous application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council stated the need for enormous skill acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, in addition to public and personal investments. [14] Some of the stated motivations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI method consist of the capacity of artificial intelligence for commercial change, better social governance and keeping social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research study. With the development of big language models (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese researchers began developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence introduced China’s first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively provided the policies concerning deepfakes, which became efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on fundamental generative AI services safety requirements, consisting of specs for data collection and design training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to construct AI policy dialogue with developing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed issue over AI security risks, consisting of abuse of information or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors produced with generative expert system to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a big language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The 4th and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, many Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually released AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be vital to the future of global military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council aims for China to make essential contributions to fundamental AI theory and to solidify its location as an international leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council aims for AI to become “the primary driving force for China’s commercial updating and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the development of artificial intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “seeks to meld state preparation and control while some operational versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market securities, creating asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a leading research top priority and ranks AI initially among “frontier markets” that the Chinese government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector often supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI financing mainly concentrated on innovative and applied research. [38] The government funding likewise supported several AI R&D in the personal sector through endeavor capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research study revealed that, while China is massively investing in all elements of AI advancement, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing cars are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on developing China’s modern industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as a speculative advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and local commercial advancement and community. For circumstances, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, greatly focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competition for computer system vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic surveillance network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play a necessary role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private partnerships, and worldwide partnerships and jobs with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and imposing commitments on AI business, the overall method to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population creates a huge quantity of available information for companies and researchers, which offers an important advantage in the race of big information. Since 2024 [update], China has the world’s largest variety of internet users, creating huge quantities of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is one of the most extensively used AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of data from its residents assists additional train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not just favorable and important for corporations to additional AI R&D but also uses tremendous economic potential attracting both global and domestic firms to join the AI market. The drastic development of the info and communication technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets recently are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft procedures stating that tech business will be bound to make sure AI-generated material upholds the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, companies bear legal obligation for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content may not “prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language model to the general public, business should seek approval from the CAC to certify that the design refuses to answer certain concerns relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that keeps libraries consisting of training information sets frequently utilized for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies regional business with training data that CCP leaders think about allowable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has been reported to decline to address concerns relating to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most companies [who?] hold positive views about AI‘s financial effect on China’s long-lasting financial development. In the past, standard markets in China have had problem with the increase in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, operational expenses are anticipated to reduce while an increase in efficiency generates earnings growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to overcome adoption barriers including expenses and absence of effectively trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most adversely affected by China’s AI advancement due to the fact that of rising demands for laborers with advanced skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic development may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial development is focused in seaside areas rather than inland. [61]

A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated content is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to construct a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on the usage of unmanned weapons and artificial intelligence. [62] [63] It is looking into various types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial cars at an airshow. A media report launched later on revealed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and ruining a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mainly affected by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense development and worries of a broadening “generational space” in comparison to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to utilize AI for making use of large troves of intelligence, producing a common operating image, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) technique, which seeks to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, decision assistance, software, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, few limits exist in between Chinese commercial business, university lab, the military, and the main federal government. As a result, the Chinese government has a direct ways of guiding AI development top priorities and accessing technology that was ostensibly established for civilian functions. To further enhance these ties the Chinese federal government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI innovation from industrial business and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of information labeling to produce the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the prospective to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily relevant AI applications, potentially granting it lawful access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese equity capital investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial nations,” from purchasing U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. national security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has actually been investing, including “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unapproved due to its model usage prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, specifically given that China deals with difficulties in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have been operating in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the exact same percentage of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China especially want to attend to military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently developed the first kids’s curriculum in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the past years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific focus on user protection, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people shall stay completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles requiring essential needs in long-term research and planning of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and numerous nationwide governments have established legislation dealing with information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to address brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative structure categorizing all sort of information collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech companies in China are required to classify their data into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific standards on how to govern and handle data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual residential or commercial property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI evaluates the proof presented and applies pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial information can reach objective decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology companies may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party leadership, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented approach to AI, and has actually looked for to motivate personal tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to global AI leadership and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards protecting an international technological dominance – China missed both industrial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that originated in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to benefit from the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital technology consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the national restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government officials demonstrated extremely keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and international security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking community to likewise prioritize cultivating competence and understanding of AI developments in China” and “funding, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive essential change.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have unequaled resources and enormous untapped capacity, but the West has world-leading expertise and a strong research study culture. Rather than stress over China’s development, it would be sensible for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship routine has stunted the development of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI produces obstacles for holistic national security, consisting of the dangers that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing impacts on worldwide relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will cause higher injustice of employees and more severe social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to greater capital build-up and political power in fewer financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the main accountable star in the area of generative AI (producing brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI threats escalating military competitors between nations which the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country but will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential danger from artificial intelligence have actually occurred. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is generally optimistic concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study carried out across 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI exceed the dangers, the greatest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese college student found that 80% agreed or highly concurred that AI will do more good than damage for society, and 31% believed it must be managed by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely utilized AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, implementation of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang area to find Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a government purposefully using synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of unrest are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment innovation, specifically by regional municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of synthetic intelligence business
Regulation of synthetic intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.

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